Achieving the American Dream Essay Example for Free

Accomplishing the American Dream Essay One would imagine that buying your first home would be an extremely captivating encounter; after all it is one of the most significant acquisition of your whole life. In America, home proprietorship connects to the American Dream and the soul of endeavoring to one day acquire through difficult work a home with a white picket fence. My better half and I felt that it was the ideal opportunity for us to compensate ourselves for all the difficult work we have been placing in throughout the years by buying our first home, which was well past due. I immediately took during the time spent buying your first home can be baffling and upsetting. In any case, on the off chance that you endure the home purchasing process the prize is extremely valuable once you move into your â€Å"American Dream.† Before we began looking for our home we both concurred it was significant for us to have a home loan credit preapproval. In spite of the fact that I expected that acquiring a preapproval would be the most testing piece of buying a home, it happened to be the least demanding piece of the whole procedure. I had the option to be preapproved by my bank via telephone surprisingly fast pending certain rules. Obtaining the preapproval was so natural I was certain the rest of the procedure would be easy. I was alarmed to discover that I would be confronted with numerous deterrents to defeat so as to finish the way toward purchasing our first home. Next, it was the ideal opportunity for us to look for another home. I was energized and on edge to look for our first home. Sadly, I was ignorant that the lodging market in Houston, TX was prospering and it was serious. On my journey for the ideal house, I took a gander at a few excellent homes. I discovered one specifically that I preferred, and it was an abandonment. I chose to put a proposal on the home. In any case, just a couple of days after the fact I was educated that I was outbid by another purchaser. Since this was the main home I put a proposal on I didn't anticipate the outbidding being a significant issue. We concluded that we would proceed with our quest for our â€Å"American Dream.† The following home I began to look all starry eyed at was a model home; be that as it may, I before long discovered that it was a short deal. A short deal can take as long as a half year to be endorsed, and I didn't possess energy for that ,on the grounds that, my current rent had just terminated on my rental home. I start to work with a real estate agent who was likewise a financial specialist. She had a stunning home available to be purchased in a lovely neighborhood. I stretched out a proposal to her on the home, and she said that she would need to talk it over with her better half. She later reached me to prompt me that she had consented to acknowledge a money offer on the home. I kept on searching for the ideal home and was not having a lot of accomplishment. I before long found that the real estate agent had another house available in the equivalent lovely neighborhood. I reached her immediately and made a proposal on the house. When she acknowledged my offer we marked and faxed the agreement to the bank immediately. The real estate professional and I both concurred on an end date which was 45 days from the date we m arked the agreement. Now, the time had come to ensure that we met all of endorsing rules. It was not just significant for us to meet the entirety of the bank specifications however the genuine house needed to fulfill bank guidelines all together for the bank to favor the credit. Right away, subsequent to faxing the agreement over to the bank I was reached by my advance processor, her name was Emily. She revealed to me everything that I required and I messaged Emily the prerequisites inside 24 hours. The main thing that was pending as far as anyone is concerned was the evaluation on the house which I included finished inside multi week. After, I faxed over the examination I didn't get notification from Emily until three days before my first shutting date. Emily was reaching me to make me mindful that the guaranteeing division was mentioning that a second examination on the house be finished before we could close on the home. I was baffled that three weeks had passed and I heard nothing from her and now three days before shutting she was reaching me to hand-off this data to me. Notwithstanding, I was not going to surrender. I got the examination and sent it to the bank, just to have Emily get in touch with me a couple of days after the fact to disclose to me that the financier was presently requiring a termite assessment. We were at that point well past our first shutting date and rapidly moving toward our second shutting date, I reached a termite controller and had the termite examination performed immediately. Emily then educated me that she was sending the entirety of our data over to the title organization so they can mastermind an end date. She gave me the title company’s contact data and instructed me to contact the title organization for my end date. I reached the title organization and was extremely astounded to find I was unable to close on the house until the vender came back from the Bahamas since she expected to sign a discharge structure. The merchant came back from the Bahamas fourteen days after the fact and I at long last got a genuine shutting date which was October 18, 2012. At last, I said to my better half we have a genuine shutting date. I was past energized. My significant other and I went to the title organization on October 18, 2012 to conclude our buy on our home. I can’t clarify the inclination we felt as we marked the home loan papers on our new home. In the wake of marking what felt like a million papers we got the keys to our new home. At the point when we got in our vehicle we needed to pause for a minute to express gratefulness to God, for not just permitting us to buy our first home yet for leaving our first home alone our fantasy home. For what reason was the procedure so troublesome and muddled to buy my first home? I can envision it was because of the lodging emergency in America. I accept that banks require so much now since they are attempting to keep homebuyers from losing their homes to dispossession. They are bending over backward to ensure that homebuyers are not overpaying for homes and making each endeavor to guarantee that homebuyers can bear the cost of the homes. In spite of the fact that, I was disappointed I need imminent homebuyers to realize that it merited the entirety of the difficulty. I think homeownership is the American dream and urge everybody to move in the direction of accomplishing the American dream by not surrendering or getting baffled. I think it is significant for forthcoming homebuyers to concentrate on the last prize-homeownership. Reflections Paragraph The progression I saw as the most straightforward was significant corrections. It was simple since I had the option to connect my decision to my basic section. I am trusting that will catch the readers’ eye and keep them increasingly intrigued by my exposition. The progression I found the hardest was editing. While I was editing I saw that numerous sentences didn't sound right. I gave a valiant effort to attempt to address the sentences that didn't sound right. I discovered that composition by overhauling your paper permits you the chance to make your exposition stunningly better. I despite everything have numerous mistakes for development; in any case, I am certain that with training I will end up being an extraordinary essayist.

Economics Commentary Macroeconomics Essay

Regions of Syllabus your critique identifies with: Section 4: Macroeconomics Having encountered constriction from Q4 08 to Q2 09, the Canadian economy became 5% in the final quarter of 2009, beating anticipated figures. This development was hastened by customer and government spending, just as a developing lodging market. There was likewise development recorded in trades, with areas, for example, the car, vitality and modern calculating into this. Be that as it may, financial analysts caution that for this development to proceed, issues, for example, joblessness and patchy total interest must be tended to. Monetary measures, which means choices made by the focal administering body concerning tax collection and government spending, have just been taken by the Canadian government, as the financial upgrade bundle. This bundle has in it $12B in foundation burning through, $7.8B intended to animate development firms, $8.3 B for aptitudes preparing and retraining, and a few assessment credits going from the home improvement ($1350/family) to brought down EI and annual duty rates. Financial strategy by and large frets about making states of full work, value dependability and genuine GDP development. Full business, or a financial state where every single qualified individuals who need to work can discover work at the overarching wage rate, is significant in accomplishing a condition of greatest profitability in the economy. The present joblessness rate is 8.2%, over the for the most part acknowledged normal pace of joblessness. It has anyway fallen altogether, with an increase of 159,000 new openings since June 2009. This might be ascribed the lessening in auxiliary joblessness, a found in Fig 1 through a move from AD (l) to AD1 (l). There confound in abilities offered by Canadian laborers and those requested by firms has diminished on the outline, maybe through preparing programs. Then again, an expansion in total interest, brought about by an expansion in the discretionary cashflow of families may have likewise caused the increment sought after for work as firms extended or rehired laid off staff. Cost solidness is likewise significant for long haul monetary development, in light of the fact that widespread swelling, which means a consistent and delayed increment in the value level, is known to have a few unfriendly impacts. These incorporate the additional expenses brought about by precarious asset expenses, and cash losing its job as a vehicle of significant worth. As the administration infuses more upgrades into the economy, the danger of interest pull swelling develops. In this way total interest would rise; on account of development in the cash gracefully, the cost level would increment, as portrayed by the short run condition of trade, M=P. This expansion in the cash gracefully is given by the Bank of Canada, and included as the Extraordinary Financing Framework in the administrations activity plan. To stay away from the previously mentioned expansion, the Bank of Canada has a few instruments available to its. Raising the measure of save necessity is an intriguing contractionary decision, so is raising the markdown rate charged to significant banks. These two together act to diminish the best inflationary deterrent, that is general feeling. In this manner, as appeared in Fig2, an expansion in the financing cost brings about an abatement in customer interest for cash. This reduction sought after would be helpful in controlling expansion once recuperation had happened. Be that as it may, in the present, the Bank of Canada is probably going to worry about gradually expanding the cash flexibly, and keeping a stable for the time being rate. It is obscure whether the improvement bundle is the reason for the bounce back in the Canadian economy, this may have been brought about by advertise powers. Also, the retraining programs are probably not going to have just diminished basic joblessness, as one of their significant deficiencies is the period of time expected to finish such a course. These supposed time slacks are risky on the grounds that once the retrained people advances once more into the work showcase, 3-4 years may have passed, right around a full pattern of specific economies. As expressed in the article, the Canadian recuperation itself doesn't remain on stable ground, particularly so given that a noteworthy piece of the EU is intensely owing debtors and America no yet out of its own downturn, significant, as 80% of Canadian imports are foreordained there. Regardless of whether the measures taken by the legislature concerning animating the Canadian economy over the long haul will be fruitful is not yet clear. In any case, the normal white collar class resident in all probability has encountered the advantages of measures extending from charge credits and decreases to financing coordinated to the business they work in.

Startup quotes Mark Zuckerberg from Facebook

Startup quotes Mark Zuckerberg from Facebook Mark Elliott Zuckerberg, born on May 14th in 1984, is a well know web entrepreneur who started Facebook.List of companies Mark Zuckerberg startedCourseMatch; software that helped students choose their classes based on the course selections of other users.Facemash; a website which compared the pictures of two students on campus and allowed users to vote on which one was more attractive.Facebook; a social network that helps people connect and stay updated on friends and family.Due to his wild success with Facebook he accumulated wealth of more than 25 billion USD before his 30th birthday.Startup quotes from Mark Zuckerberg#1: IF YOU JUST WORK ON STUFF THAT YOU LIKE AND YOU’RE PASSIONATE ABOUT, YOU DON’T HAVE TO HAVE A MASTERPLAN WITH HOW THINGS WILL PLAY OUT. by Mark Zuckerberg, Founder Facebook#2: THE BIGGEST RISK IS NOT TAKING ANY RISK IN A WORLD THAT IS CHANGING REALLY QUICKLY, THE ONLY STRATEGY THAT IS GUARANTEED TO FAIL IS NOT TAKING RISKS. by Mark Zuckerberg, Founder Facebook #3: MOVE FAST AND BREAK THINGS. IF YOU ARE NOT BREAKING THINGS, YOU ARE NOT MOVING FAST ENOUGH. by Mark Zuckerberg, Founder Facebook#4: DONE IS BETTER THAN PERFECT by Mark Zuckerberg, Founder Facebook #5: IM CEO, BITCH! by Mark Zuckerberg, Founder Facebook

Essay The Necessity of Gun Control - 2422 Words

The Necessity of Gun Control Gun control is one of the most debatable topics today. Thirty-three million Americans own firearms for hunting (Aitkens 9). But hunting is not the sole reason for which many individuals buy firearms. Of all countries, the United States is the one which is troubled most by a large number of criminals who are in possession of guns. The U.S. has the highest firearm murder rate of any democracy in the world (Aitkens 5). Where is the country going wrong as far as gun control is concerned? An immense number of laws have been created by the legislature. All were made in order to be sure guns remain in control of the right hands, yet the problems seem to prevail. All three branches of government (judicial,†¦show more content†¦More than 47,000 people die each year in motor vehicle accidents. If we ban their use, no one will ever have a motor vehicle accident and no one will ever die (Aitkens 11). The whole idea of restricting firearms can seem absurd when contrasted with information published by the National Rifle Association which states that in reality over 99.8 percent of firearms and 99.6 percent of handguns will never be involved in criminal activity. This means that gun control laws would restrict law-abiding citizens, while doing nothing to reduce crime (Aitkens 13-15). The following twenty-seven words of the Second Amendment have caused quite a bit of confusion for the past two hundred years: A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed (Landau 44). The Second Amendment guarantees the right to bear arms. But to whom does it guarantee the right? Everybody? Whom exactly did the people who wrote the amendment have in mind? Lets not forget, this was written over two hundred years ago when life was different. At that time hunting was a major means of getting food and guns were required to protect oneself and ones property from hostile Native Americans and other intruders. In other words, what a car is to an American today, a rifle was to an American back then - a bare necessity (Gottfried 26-31). Another problemShow MoreRelatedEssay on Three Reasons Against Gun Control646 Words   |  3 PagesA controversial subject in America today is gun control; should there be or should there not be. I do not know the answer to this question, but I do have an opinion as most citizen of our country. All trough our history guns have been used for the good of the people, and on the other hand, they have been used for the not so good of the people ; however, as with most things there is a good use and a bad use. I believe the good uses out weigh the bad uses in this case. In this essay I am going toRead MorePros And Cons Of Gun Control1073 Words   |  5 Pages Implementing gun control in the United States would only result in more chaos and increased rebellion from citizens who responsibly and legally own firearms. In doing so, the law-abiding citizens would be left defenseless against the criminals who continue to obtain guns illegally. Not only that, but the 2nd amendment rights of the United States Constitution would be diminished and the crime in the community would remain the same or perhaps increase. Gun control would not stop criminals from illegallyRead MoreThe Gun Laws And Gun Control965 Words   |  4 Pagesoriginate from the accessibility of guns, but rather the actions of an individual that has disregard for life in today s society. There will always be ways for the offender commit crimes with or without guns. What is being done about gun control? We have all heard of all the tragedies throughout the country regarding guns. According to the President (2013) We know that we cannot stop every act of violence with guns, but what if we tried to stop even one? Weapon controls in the U.S. is structured atRead MoreThe Issue of Guns and Gun Control in America1146 Words   |  5 PagesIn America guns have been a part of the country’s society since it’s birth. Throughout history the citizens of the US have used firearms to protect the nation, protect their families, to hunt for food and to engage in sporting activities. The issue of Guns and gun control takes on a proportion of extreme magnitude. Weighing the rights and liberties of the individual against the welfare and safety of the public has always been a precarious balancing act. In the United States, gun control is one ofRead MoreCriminal Justice Department Of The Country1377 Words   |  6 Pagessociety. Particularly, the issue of gun violence and control has rai sed controversial debates between the media and law enforcers with different opinions arising from each party. This paper seeks to reflect on gun violence and control. Gun Violence and Gun Control The increased cases of gun violence in the U.S are alarming due to the increasing reported cases of gun shooting, especially in public setups, such as schools. Gun violence is a situation where people use guns to evoke violence in the societyRead MoreGun Control versus Gun Rights Essay1445 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction In America guns have been a part of the country’s society since it’s birth. Throughout history the citizens of the US have used firearms to protect the nation, protect their families, hunt for food and engage in sporting activities. The issue of Guns and gun control is complex. Weighing the rights and liberties of the individual against the welfare and safety of the public has always been a precarious balancing act. In the United States, gun control is one of these tumultuous issuesRead MoreEssay on Gun Control Rights958 Words   |  4 Pagesin the United States is gun control. It is clearly written in the Second Amendment of the Constitution that the people will have the right to bear arms. Recently; however, people have been misusing those firearms and have been harming others with them. The government is trying to regulate the sale, distribution, and ownership of guns because of this reason. Some of the arguments being made by the politicians is simply if the govern ment has the right to be able to control, and if it does, the effectivenessRead MorePublic Gun Control And The United States1732 Words   |  7 PagesPublic Gun Control in the United States Gun Control in the United States of America is a sensitive (understatement) topic that has resulted in various criticism and support by many citizens of the United States (also an understatement). Some citizens believe that the guns don t kill people; it is the people that kill people while others believe that guns lead to violence and a feeling of control and power over others. The belief of some is that if firearms were to be eliminated from the publicRead MoreGuns, For Better Or For Worse887 Words   |  4 PagesGuns, for better or for worse, are a central part of many societies culture. Created in the 13th century, they have been around for an extremely long period of time. (Wikipedia). They revolutionized many aspects of life including hunting and how wars are fought. With the immense power guns offer, comes an immense danger and responsibility. It is up to each country to regulate the possession and usage of such dangerous and volatile objects. When in the wrong hands, they po se a threat to societiesRead MoreThe Freedom And Freedom Of The United States Of America1603 Words   |  7 Pagesraised in this country. They were taught to always respect and cherish the rights and liberties given to us, the people, that were earned and are still being bravely defended to this day. Our rights were earned and are defended by our courageous, gun wielding soldiers. Currently, in this turbulent time of politics in our nation, many of our rights and privileges are being aimed at for attack and infringement. In this case, particularly, it is the American citizen s right to bear arms. This right

A Study On The Protective Immunity - 928 Words

In this study, the CRPV/HLA-A2.1 transgenic rabbit model was used to assess the protective immunity generated by DNA vaccines delivered using the gene gun, the tattoo gun or the microneedle system. The focus was to determine whether the tattoo gun and the microneedle delivery systems were useful DNA vaccination alternatives to the gene gun. Our laboratory has successfully utilized the gene gun in our DNA vaccination studies for both protective and therapeutic purposes (17,34). However, the gene gun system is costly, and we are constantly looking for alternatives to back up our vaccine development program. Tattoo gun has been reported to deliver a DNA vaccine successfully in both mice and non-human primates (21-23). Compared with the gene gun and microneedle, tattoo gun delivery is more cost effective but more invasive which generates trauma and scars the vaccinated tissues. Microneedle delivery has achieved comparable protection in mice with twice the dose of gene gun delivery (24 ). However, no studies have been attempted in rabbits for DNA vaccination with either a tattoo gun or a microneedle. In the current study, we compared the gene gun with the tattoo gun as well as the tattoo gun with microneedle DNA vaccine delivery using our well-studied DNA epitope vaccines and our unique HLA-A2.1 transgenic rabbit model (39). Read out was tumor outgrowth rates and tumor size. We demonstrated that these two novel DNA delivery systems can be used for DNA vaccination in the rabbitShow MoreRelatedInteractions Between Fungi And DC900 Words   |  4 Pagesand DC: How DC can be used to develop vaccines? Like mentioned previously, DC initiates activation of different types of cells based on type of molecules/antigens at site of infection. Hence different forms of fungi initiate different mechanisms of immunity. When DC pulsed with fungus are introduced into mice, they can initiate specific immune response against that antigen by activating CD4+ Th cells. The analysis of antigen specific proliferation and cytokine production from CD4+ Th cells was doneRead MoreA Research Analysis Of MERS-COV Mice912 Words   |  4 PagesAn experimental study done on Six-to eight-week-old specific pathogen-free female BALB/c mice to test if DNA vaccine encoding MERS-COV S protein can induce immunity against MERS-COV infection. The study generated 3 recombinant plasmids expressing MERS-CoV spike protein: pcDNA3.1-S, pcDNA3.1-SDCD, and pcDNA3.1-S1 which dissolved into Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) with final concertation of 1  µg /  µl. Mice were divide randomly to experimental group which injected intramuscularly with 100  µg recombinantRead MoreRapid Diagnostic Tests In Rwanda Case Study1129 Words   |  5 Pagesmalaria transmission Combined malaria histidine rich protein 2 (HRP2)/ Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are often used to determine whether persons with fever should be treated with anti-malarials. The observation study carried out in Rwanda on 9226 from April 2014- April 2015 to compare the sensitivity of RDTs based on HRP2 and the Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) in diagnosing malaria using microscopy and molecular test(PCR) to see if there is associationRead More##syl Lipid A ( GLA ) Adjuvants : Associated Antigen Portrayed In Fig1857 Words   |  4 Pagesassociated antigen (Rv1813) as shown in Fig1. The protein has been identified to recognize human T cells [11] and has the capacity to stimulate Th1 immune responses known to confer protective immunity that is required for an effective TB vaccine [12]. However, as is generally known, recombinant proteins are by themselves poorly immunogenic and need an adjuvant to stimulate adaptive immune responses. The Glucopyranosyl Lipid A (GLA) adjuvant is a synthetic Toll-like Receptor (TLR) 4 that is formulatedRead MoreVaccinations : Should They Be Mandatory?1331 Words   |  6 Pagesmicroorganisms or toxins or of antibodies or lymphocytes† that is administered predominantly to thwart virus replication of a particular disease (Vaccine). It acts as a stimulant for the immune system of a human body which assists in developing adaptive immunity to a specific pathogen. Shockingly, vaccines themselves are created using components found in the virus or the bacteria itself (Offit). As of present, no federal vaccination laws exist in the United States of America although all states require childrenRead MoreHemoglobin Case Study940 Words   |  4 PagesThis study was aimed to assess the hemoglobin level, and associated factors to the development of neonatal infection in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU). In our study of 256 neonates, the most prevalent diagnosis on admission was Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy (HIE) of new born (43.00%) followed by prematurity (29.70%). Birth weight (with mean=1889g,), gestational age (mean= 34.2 weeks), hospital stay (mean=12days) and hemoglobin level (mean=14 ±2 g/dl) had greater odds for development of neonatalRead MoreWay to Stronger, Healthier and a More Immune India1833 Words   |  7 Pagesimmunization - Colostrum: We are responsible for immunity of the babies to start developing right from birth itself. It is the babys right to drink the mothers first milk expressed which is called colostrum. It has large amount of main immune factor Immunoglobulin A(IgA) which forms a protective layer on the mucous membranes in the babys intestines, nose and throat. This protective layer protects the babies from invading germs. The protective layer formed in intestinal tract prevent babies fromRead MoreBreastfeeding : The Natural Source Of Nutrition For Babies1175 Words   |  5 Pagesfluid that a newborn needs in the early days after birth, as well as substances to protect the baby diseases. Compared to regular breast milk, colostrum is yellow in color, and very dense. Its color and thickness are a result of it being higher in protective nutrients and antibodies. (HHS- Office on Women’s Health, 4). Also, colostrum is higher in protein, slightly lower in sugar, extremely low in fat. A mother’s body will produce colostrum for many days after child birth, until milk production increasesRead MoreEssay On Natural Immunity Against Malaria1574 Words   |  7 PagesNatural Immunity against malaria: Natural immunity against asexual stage parasites develops with repetitive exposure to malaria parasites and thus forms the basis of clinical immunity against malaria (Baird, Jones et al. 1991, Day and Marsh 1991, Trape, Rogier et al. 1994, Baird 1995, Baird 1998, Hviid 2005). Though clinical immunity to malaria has been shown to develop in individuals, it does not prevent reinfection due to several factors including the complex life-cycle of the parasite and insufficiencyRead MoreThe Epidemic Of West Nile1599 Words   |  7 Pageschallenge were used in the 1999-2000 studies. These challenge models result in about 90% of the nonvaccinated control horses developing viremia, but only 10% demonstrated clinical disease. The intrathecal challenge model is the newest version. 70 to 90% of nonvaccinated control horses become visemic and 90 to 100% develop grave signs of encephalomyelitis. West Nile virus vaccines are licensed either as 1) an aid in protection against viremia or 2) protective against viremia and clinical disease

Single Sex versus Co-ed Free Essays

Single-Sex versus Co-education Education is very important for both boys and girls, but the place they are being educated in is very arguable. Nowadays, it has been noticed that in a single-sex educational experience students exhibit an eagerness to participate in discussions. In Australia, the percentage of students attending single-sex secondary schools was 55% of boys and 54% of girls, in 1985. We will write a custom essay sample on Single Sex versus Co-ed or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, by 1995 the proportion of students attending had dropped to 41% of boys and 45% of girls. Let us start by onsidering the fact that studying in separate school, boys and girls, can indisputably concentrate on their studies and not get distracted easily by the opposite sex classmates. In addition to this, some religious and traditional families might be keener to educate their children in separate schools. Generally, students of single- sex schools perform better than those at co-ed schools. On the other hand, it could be better for boys and girls to study together since they should be taught fairly. Communication plays a big role in co-education schools. It helps pupils to communicate and socialize and it is easier for them in the future as they get to interact with others while working, in colleges and universities, etc. Moreover, students at co-ed schools learn to interact better with the other gender. After weighing the pros and cons, I would say that we live in a mixed world where interactions between both genders is compulsory, whether it was a debate at work or a group discussion among co-workers. The ability to speak out without intimidation is a vital feature in each individual. Written And Discussed By: JOY How to cite Single Sex versus Co-ed, Papers

History of Economics and Globalization

Question: Discuss about the History of Economics and Globalization. Answer: Introduction The term Globalization is a contemporary term but this of globalization practice is not new. There are economic trades, flow of capital, financial flows, increasing economic activities and transaction across the political borders exists since middle ages. There are many ups downs in the evolution of Globalization. It is in first half of the 20th century that globalization really picked up and expanded. In the 1929, the great depression started in US and crippled the economy for the next 4 years. Then In 1937, US economy was back on its track. There were shortage of resources in some nations and as a result export capital of some other nations grew rapidly during this time. Nations are begun to cooperate with each other. There was also understanding to exchange the economic resources between the nations to settle the international disputes as war consumers the resource of all the participating nations. In further course of time, Institutions like World Bank and international monetary fund established. The purpose of these is to monitor, regulate as well increase the economic transactions between the nations (www.imf.org). Gradually many nations also open their economies for foreign investment which give further rise to globalization n. Further With the advent of internet, digitalization and other disruptive IT innovations has fastened the pace of increasing economic transaction among nations. Also, the rapid growth of multinational companies and their hunger for newer markets has accelerated the globalization. Globalization, which had picked up its pace during the last quarter of 20th century has increased rapidly during 21st century. However Globalization has both positives as well as negatives. On one hand, it is making sure that the consumers get the lowest price due to the increased competition but at the same time, many people are becoming unemployed because there are poor nat ions with cheap labor available. There are tax heavens which are exploited by the corporations who saved a lot of tax by shifting their base to such countries. Unemployment levels in US have become very high due to migrants from India and China has replaced their jobs. Every time there are elections in America, increasing employment by putting more restriction on immigrants is the top agenda of all the parties. However, there are corporate who always require fewer rules and thus believe in lobbying the government. The objective of this report is to throw a light on history of economics and globalization in details and how some countries are benefitted from it while some countries are losing because of it. Evolution of Globalization Globalization is not a new practice; it has been there since middle ages. However, it enters to next level in the 18th century with the spread of Industrial revolution and huge development in human technology, inanimate traction for goods which lead to mass production of goods and transportation of goods and people across border, financial investments flows between nation and colonial plunder by European nations. The income was increasing rapidly between European and American nations on one hand and rest of the world on the other hand. After that Globalization halted for sometime due to the various wars of 20th century. However it picked up again during the second half of 20th century and currently in 21st century, Globalization has become the trend and pervades every aspect of life. It will be difficult to image the life without Globalizations. Some brands have become commodity worldwide, some corporate have shifter their manufacturing units in low cost countries that it will be con tinue to be there. It can be said that the economies of different nations is linked closely with the globalization. It is observed that the nations that are open to global firms have strong economic structure as compared to the nations that are not open to global firms. Many forums like World Bank, World trade organization, international monetary fund are established to regulate the international trade between countries (https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/coher_e/wto_imf_e.htm). World bank was established with long-term aim of reducing poverty and improving standard of living by promoting economic development (Baylis, Smith, Owens, 2013). International trade and International Finance International finance uses the macroeconomic models to understand international economy. It identifies the relationship between indicators like GDP, exchange rates, unemployment rate, inflation rate, interest rates. The aim of international finance is to look after trade deficit and imbalances and makes sure that indicators are in control by influencing government fiscal and monetary policies and determining exchange rates. International trade is the application of micro economic models to study the international economy. It studies demand and supply analysis of international markets, consumer behavior, oligopoly, effect of market distortions. This is basically to understand how the international trade has affected the individuals, businesses. Globalization has increased the unemployment rate in some developed countries and decreases the unemployment rate in some developing countries. This statement is more related to International finance. Globalization has increased the demand of s ome goods across world and there is always shortage of supply is related to International trade. Emergence of Cross-national cooperation and agreements There are various forums developed like SAARC (South Asian Association for regional cooperation) with aim to increase and promote regional and economical integration. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) was also established in 1961 to improve the standard of living and quality of life of the people around the world. Under it, member countries share their problems and try to help each other. OECD also measures global flows of investment and trade. Likewise, there are many forums established worldwide which is a sign of Collaboration. More and more nations are now realizing the power of the collaboration. Nations began to understand that this will lead to more growth. Many nations are sharing their technology and hence there is no need to reinvent the wheel every time. Research also progressed at a rapid pace. ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) was established in 1967 with one of the aim of cooperation in Industrial development, Food and agriculture, Finance, Banking industry, Tourism, energy, private sector. APEC (Asia pacific Economic co-operation) was established in 1989 with aim of reduce trade barriers between the member countries and to increase the gains for the world economy resulting from the interdependence of the economies and by encouraging flow of goods, service, technology. Similarly, there is establishment of AU (African union) and EU (European Nation). EU is political and economical union of 28 member countries to achieve more economic integration and generate more jobs in all the member countries (Draguhn, Manske, Ruland, 2013). NAFTA (North America Free Trade Agreement) is union of US, Canada and Mexico creating free trade area. After NAFTA was signed, there is huge increase in exports and imports with Canada and Mexico as it reduced the trade barriers. It also aims for protecting the intellectual propriety rights of the nations and promote conditions of free trade. It highly encouraged the flow of investment in each others capital nations. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) was also established consisting of countries that mainly exports oil with aim of safeguarding the interest of all the oil producing countries individually as well as collectively (Nye, 2012). This is how the various nations come together to signed contracts, trade agreements with each other to increase the trade. However, this wave of Globalization during last quarter of 20th century consists more of government, social and political nature. In the beginning of 21st century, technology was growing at a rapid pace, Internet, digitalization becomes much more common and globalization grows in a much accelerated mode. This current wave of Globalization is lead by the growth of the multinational corporations (MNCs). As these MNCs firms have relocated their various business functions across different countries in search of cheap labor, tax gains, potential for growth markets, they have started a new wave of accelerated economic internationalization. They are increasingly seen as main agents of Globalization. Today, Pizza hut, McDonalds, KFC, starbucks are present in almost many countries. Brands like Unilever, PG, Colgate, Apple, Microsoft, Virgin, Mtv, Samsung are also quite po pular around the world because of the Globalization. Some countries are hugely benefitting from the Globalization while some countries are declining in terms of their economy due to Globalization. Similarly, some industries are also enjoying the benefits of Globalization, while some industries are struggling due to their technology being stolen by other nations or mimic by other nations and provided cheaper alternatives to the consumers. Benefits of Globalization Let us look at the some of the benefits of the Globalization and the countries/Industries, which are enjoying these benefits: The most important benefit of the Globalization is the increase economic activity and increased competition among the companies. Consumers are spoilt for choice as same product is available in multiple brands as well as there is huge diversification in products also. Consumers are enjoying the best of the things of different countries. Also, due to increased competition among the corporations, there is a need to keep the prices low which is also very good situation for the consumers. Consumers now enjoy huge bargaining power. Globalization has also increased the wealth and standard of living of people in developing countries. Organizations have created the jobs in the developing nations by shifting their offices in those countries. Globalizations impact on Developing countries Countries like India, China, are hugely benefitted from the Globalization because of availability of cheap labor. Lot of labor jobs as well as white collar jobs has shifted from America and Europe to eastern nations like China and India because of availability of cheap labor. Different countries are sharing their technology and resources for the research to solve the worlds problems like pollution, scarcity of water. Due to globalization, there is no need to reinvent the wheel every time. Many organizations like unilever, Amazon, Microsoft, apple, Pizze hut, McDonalds, Burger King, Sony, Samsung benefitted hugely from the globalizations by selling their products to newer and unexplored markets (Mcmichael, 2015). Also, as these organizations have shifted their offices and manufacturing units to cheap places, they area also generating jobs which in turn have increased the purchasing power of the people and hence there is huge increase in demand. It improved the global economy and reduc es the poverty to some extent (Mcmichael, 2015). Also, another benefit is that people who are very talented but not getting the adequate education now have to world class institutions like Stanford, Harvard. China and Indian economies are hugely benefitted from the globalization. Chinas economy is growing very fast and has already surpassed Japan and Germany and as per the research, by 2030 China will become the largest economy in the world ahead of USAs economy (Jorgenson, Vu, 2013). Few years back, Researchers were claiming that china will surpass USA by 2040. Tremendous growth of China has led the researchers to refine their forecasts and decrease the guidance. Indias economy is also growing rapidly and may climb the ladder by outshining the France by 2018 (Dyker, 2015). (Source: databank.worldbank.org) Downsides of Globalization However, there are downsides of Globalization also. It has increased the gap between rich and poor. Rich people are getting richer while poor are getting poorer. These multinationals corporations are becoming greedy in their continuous search of newer markets and are exploiting the developing countries due to the strict norms in the developed countries. For instance, many pharmaceutical companies are shifting their research into Africa because people are so poor over there that Pharmacy companies can test their new medicines on them by paying them (Myers, 2014). It is although illegal but happening. These organizations are exploiting workers, labors to meet the increasing demand and not paying them as per the standards. Also, these gigantic companies with presence all over the world are effecting the development of small scale companies in developing countries. For instance, these companies are cash rich and when they expand their business in newer countries, they offer tremendous di scounts to attract the customers. This lead to closure of many small and medium scale companies in such countries (Stromquist, Monkman, 2014). Uber and Amazon are some of the examples practicing this strategy (Hong, 2016). Brain drain is another consequence of the Globalization. Talented people are leaving their countries in search of high paying jobs and shifting to different countries (Docquier, Rapoport, 2012). This practice is very common in some eastern countries and hence hinders the economic development of such countries. For instance Doctors, Scientists are highly paid jobs in western countries and people in these professions are moving to western countries. Globalization has shifted the manufacturing technology to cheaper areas like India and China and that led to risk of technology being stolen or copied. For instance, Apple moves their manufacturing in China. Their technology is copied in China and there are many cell phones similar to Apple are being sold in China at very low prices (Hay, Marsh, 2016). There are legal wars going on between Apple and Samsung about copying of each other intellectual rights. China has copied everything available and selling their duplicates products in markets at a cheaper price. This is a classic downside of the Globalization. Impact of Globlization on Developed countries America and Europe are badly affected by the Globalization. With Globalization, American workers compete with workers from all the countries and definitely corporate will hire cheap labor which put American jobs at high risk. There has been constant loss of manufacturing jobs as well closure of factories in America since globalization picked the pace (Lamber, Mattson, Dorriere, 2016). Politicians have this agenda of lose of American jobs as top priority in their elections. There are elections in 2016 and all the parties are putting this thing on top of their agenda to gain votes. Donald Trump is openly claimed that he will get the American their jobs back which are taken by the people from China and India (Tseng, Cowen, 2013). However, Multinational corporations are also very powerful and they always want the cheap labor. This is how Globalization has affected Americans. US trade deficit is also continuously increasing due to globalization. USA, Germany, France are gradually began to see the effect of globalization that China and economies of other countries are become quite gigantic and will rise the ladder soon (Morroson, 2012). Conclusion Globalization has become a trend in this new wave of economic internationalization and rapid growth of multinational corporations. Globalization has both positives as well as negatives impacts. While developing nations are hugely benefitted from Globalization, Developed nations are now facing the heat after enjoying the benefits of globalizations, exploiting the cheap labor in under developed countries. There are so many factories closing down in China. Organizations like Apple have shifted their manufacturing units to China. Google, Amazon is planning to shift their operation in India to save the huge expenses. There should be central leadership or forum that should control the mal practices that arise due to globalization. There are many forums already in place to regulate the trade activities but the issues are also remained as it is from several years. There is a lack of leadership. There are so many incidences of copying of technology by Chinese companies and then selling the pr oducts at a cheap rate. This already made MNCs to lose their billion dollars. Trade agreements like NAFTA and many other are good for politicians, organizations but not for the common man as it leads to outsourcing of numerous jobs. References Baylis, J., Smith, S., Owens, P. (2013).The globalization of world politics: An introduction to international relations. Oxford University Press. Carmody, P. (2010).Globalization in Africa: recolonization or renaissance?. Lynne Rienner Publishers. Docquier, F., Rapoport, H. (2012). Globalization, brain drain, and development.Journal of Economic Literature,50(3), 681-730. Draguhn, W., Manske, E., Rland, J. (2013).Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC): The First Decade. Routledge. Dyker, D. A. (2015).World Scientific Reference on Globalisation in Eurasia and the Pacific Rim:(In 4 Volumes) Volume 1: Foreign InvestmentVolume 2: InnovationVolume 3: Energy: Policy, Legal and Social-Economic Issues under the Dimensions of Sustainability and SecurityVolume 4: Migration: Economic Drivers of Contemporary Labour Mobility in East Asia. X. Dai, P. Farah, P. Rossi, A. Fielding (Eds.). World Scientific. Epstein, J. (2016). Crowd Actions in Britain and France from the Middle Ages to the Modern World. Edited by Michael T. Davis. Hay, C., Marsh, D. (Eds.). (2016).Demystifying globalization. Springer. Hong, J. (2016). Inside the great wall.Communications of the ACM,59(8), 10-11. https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/coher_e/wto_imf_e.htm Jorgenson, D. W., Vu, K. M. (2013). The emergence of the new economic order: Growth in the G7 and the G20.Journal of Policy Modeling,35(3), 389-399. Lambert, T., Mattson, G., Dorriere, K. (2016). Industry Clustering and Unemployment in US Regions: An Exploratory Note. McMichael, P. (2015). World-systems analysis, globalization, and incorporated comparison.journal of world-systems research,6(3), 668-689. Morrison, W. M. (2012). China's economic conditions.Current Politics and Economics of Northern and Western Asia,21(3/4), 289. Myers Jr, L. A. (2014). Globalization, Corporate Social Responsibility, and Ethical Considerations.Journal of Management,2(2), 45-61. Nye, J. S. (2012). The twenty-first century will not be a post-American world.International Studies Quarterly,56(1), 215-217. Stromquist, N. P., Monkman, K. (Eds.). (2014).Globalization and education: Integration and contestation across cultures. RL Education. Tseng, M. W., Cowen, M. D. (2013).India's and China's recent experience with reform and growth. International Monetary Fund.

United Arab Emirates Foreign Policy toward Iran

Plato The Allegory of the Cave Essays

Plato The Allegory of the Cave Essays Plato The Allegory of the Cave Paper Plato The Allegory of the Cave Paper Plato was a Philosopher who used a story based on people imprisoned in a cave to explain the way in which he thought humans formed ideas based on their senses. The story is known as the Allegory of the Cave and is one of Platos most famous passages. The allegory has different meanings at different levels; therefore there is not just a single moral in this story. Plato believed that there were two worlds, the world of appearance, the world we are in, and another world known as reality a world we were all in before we entered the world of appearance, however we cant remember it. Plato suggests that the body is a kind of prison in which the soul is trapped. The allegory begins with several prisoners tied up and trapped in a cave with little light. Plato uses this to show how he feels the soul is trapped in the body, as if it were imprisoned. The only light comes from a small fire, which is also used as a projector to show images of puppets on a wall in front of where the prisoners are positioned. The prisoners are only aware of one thing in the cave, the shadows created by the puppets. They believe that the shadows are a form of real life; to them they are real images but according to Plato they are very mistaken. The prisoners have lived in the cave all their lives and know no different. Plato uses this to show how we build up knowledge based on what we see. As the prisoners have never know any other form of life or even another world they are forced into thinking that there experience is normal, because that is all that their senses have ever experienced. Furthermore, Plato claims that the prisoners would assume that the echoes made by the people came from the shadows of the puppets, and that these echoes would also be taken as reality. As is now evident, the shadows are highly (and deliberately) analogous to everyday beliefs held to be true by the majority of people, which in reality are no more than mere illusions. Plato is here demonstrating, by use of the shadows, what he believes to be the lower level of intellect, i.e. belief, as opposed to the higher level of intellect, i.e. knowledge {or dialect}. On what grounds might Platos understanding of human knowledge be criticised? Platos understanding of human knowledge may be criticised on a number of grounds, the first and most fundamental of which in my opinion, would be the abstractness of his theory of knowledge, specifically, the theory of the forms. Many may argue that the idea of having a non-temporal, non-spatial, universally perfect form for every object in the phenomenal world is, quite plainly, ridiculous, on the grounds that perfect form is only relative to the person or standard judging that form. Take for example, Platos perfect form of beauty. We see numerous examples in everyday life of peoples perceptions, and differences of opinion in matters of beauty; in relation to art, sexual partners, cars, in fact almost anything. The idea that the amount of beauty in the above things can be agreed upon by every single person seems absurd enough, never mind the absurdity of a universal form of beauty being agreed upon. The elitism of Platos understanding may also be criticised, as it may seem immoral to some because of the arrogance portrayed by him. What Plato is actually claiming is that only a tiny minority of people like himself have true understanding, and that the rest are ignorant and wrong. Platos attitude is summed up by his quotation of Homer, to illustrate his point, effectively saying how he would rather be a surf in the house of some landless man than live and think as they do. A further criticism would be that Platos understanding of knowledge has no practical relevance, as it gives no indication or guide as to how to achieve the higher levels of intellect or, more importantly, how to apply his theory to the moral field of making everyday decisions.

Agents and Representatives in Budgeting Process Research Proposal

Agents and Representatives in Budgeting Process - Research Proposal Example The role of agents in budgeting is of great significance and, hence, should not be overlooked. During the preparations of the annual budgets and reports from all the state organs, profit, and non-profit enterprises, all the stakeholders are represented via agents. The representing agents should be individuals with deep understanding of finance and knowledgeable in accounting. It is the participation of all the agents representing the relevant institutions in the budgetary process that is commonly referred to as departmental agency budgeting (Goodman and Clynch, 2004). This process entails four major stages, namely: i. Comprehensive Fiscal Policy Formulation Under this umbrella, the overarching institutional objectives are formulated and determined. It is these policies that regulates the decision making process regarding aggregate expenditure and revenue of the firm. ii. Preparation and Enactment of the Budget It is in this stage that the government decides on proportions of financia l allocation to be advanced to each agent, and also the government outlines the purpose for which the funds are allocated to a given agent. The guiding principles relating to these are set out clearly by the legislations enacted by the state. iii. Budgetary Execution This is the actual stage in budgeting. It involves carrying out the stipulated expenditure as developed in the budget plan. It is in this stage that contractual agreements are signed between the budgetary committee and the contractors (Goodman and Clynch, 2004). iv. Accounting, Auditing, and Reporting This being the final stage in budgeting, it is the post-ante process of preparing the accounting records regarding revenues and expenditures executed by the organization within a given fiscal period. These records must have been audited by both internal and hired external experts/auditors to ensure that they meet the international accounting and auditing standards. The final reports (audited reports) are then presented to the financers, government agencies, ministers, the public and the parliament. Objectives of Budgeting The following are the key objectives of budgeting: Sound Macro-Fiscal Result: This forms the backbone to aggregate fiscal policy objective in budgeting. To ensure fiscal sustainability, sound fiscal policies must be put in place to regulate financial operations and to ensure that organization short-term debts are paid when they fall due. This policy also acts as macro-stabilizer to the economy by regulating taxation policies during boom and recession. Appropriate Expenditure Prioritization: This policy advocates for effective allocation of resources to those projects that are deemed socially profitable. The corollary under this objective is to avoid misallocation of resources especially to least priority sectors of the economy, but instead to maximize on the social gains. Service Efficiency and Effectiveness: This implies that the state services delivery is made more efficient and e ffective in a manner that is socially justifiable and acceptable by all the stakeholders. 1. Budget Overview Taking an example of HIV/AIDS funding program, during the financial allocation process, all the departments involved must have their representative on board.

Resoures needed Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Resoures needed - Essay Example The energy released is usually in heat form. After heat is emitted, the coolant lifts it out of the reactor. Coolant used in most instances is plain water. After the coolant has heated up, it proceeds to the turbine chamber where it drives a shaft. This makes nuclear reactors be exotic heat sources (Hargraves 45). The reactor core The reactor core generates heat and stores all nuclear fuel. It has uranium (low enriched, not less than 5% U-235). The coolant Material passing through the core is called the coolant. It also transfers heat usually from fuel to turbine. A coolant can be the normal water, liquid sodium, or heavy water. The turbine The turbine receives heat from the coolant then generates it to electricity. This takes the same method as it happens in fossil fuel plant. Containment This is the general high-density steel structure-separating reactor from environment. Most are dome shaped and usually reinforced in concrete. Cooling towers These are used in Plants to dump excess ive heat that have not been transformed to energy. They only emit vapor and clean water commonly referred to as hyperbolic icons. Different types of nuclear reactors There exists a variety of nuclear reactors usually of different pursposes, fuel cycles, coolants, and different fuels. Some of them include; Pressurized water reactor This is the most prevalent type of nuclear reactor. It uses the normal regular water as coolant. The cooling water is kept at very high pressures to keep it from boiling. It transfers heat to the secondary coolant loop after passing through heat exchanger. This then keeps turbine in motion. This type of reactor uses oxide fuel pellets compressed in zirconium tubes (Frog 40). This type of reactor has its pros and cons depending on circumstances. On the positive site, it has the void coefficient, which is strong and negative. Reactor easily cools down when water begins to bubble. Secondly, the secondary loop prevents radioactive materials from reaching the t urbines, which eases maintenance. Procedures have been optimized due to accumulated operating experiences. On the other side, coolants under heavy pressure have a high likely hood of escaping in the eventuality a pipe breaks. This reactor is not able to breed new fuel as result of it being susceptible concerning uranium shortage (Weston 56-58). Canada Deuterium-Uranium Reactors (CANDUs) First used in Canada, they usually contain heavy water with extra neutron in hydrogen. This therefore results to Deuterium taking place of pure hydrogen. Since Deuterium has limited capacity in absorbing neutrons compared to hydrogen, CANDUs operate strictly on natural uranium and not enriched. Its advantages are that it needs limited uranium enrichment .For this reason, it can usually be refueled when in operation which keeps capacity factors high. They possess the flexibility nature and uses different types of fuel. Its demerits are based on safety concerns since some variants posse’s positi ve coolant coefficients. Sodium Cooled Reactor Sodium metal, which is liquid in nature, cools down these types of reactors. Since sodium is heavier than hydrogen, it enables neutrons to move at higher speed. These types of reactors use oxide or metal fuels and have the potential to burn everything thrown at them (Uranium, higher actinides, plutonium and thorium). The advantage of these reactors is that they have the capability to breed their own

Managing Foreign Exchange Risk in International Trade

Managing Foreign Exchange Risk in International Trade MANAGING FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE WITH A FOCUS ON EAST MIDLANDS COMPANIES Abstract The purpose of this research is to investigate how international trade companies in the East Midlands manage foreign exchange risk. This study utilises descriptive statistics in presenting and analysing data from the primary research. The findings of the research indicate that a majority of the firms used broad business strategies in managing their foreign exchange risk. The main problems the firms had with managing foreign exchange risks centred on customer retention and receiving payments on time. The results also indicate that there were a few firms which took an integrated approach to mitigating foreign exchange risk. This research is of value to firms involved in international trade and also business development agencies which seek to assist firms which are planning to enter or are already operating in foreign markets. Chapter 1 Introduction International trade involves exporting and importing of goods or services across foreign borders and, as soon as a firm engages in import and/or export it is exposed to numerous risks. As a result firms operating outside their home country, have to deal with the economic conditions of the foreign country in which it wishes to operate in. One of the key issues firms involved in import and/ or export are faced with is dealing with foreign currency as this is the only means by which the exchange of goods or services is facilitated. To this end it is import to study and understand the impact which foreign currency has on international trade. Following the demise of the Bretton Woods agreement (1971) whereby exchange rates were allowed to float freely, managing foreign exchange has become important (Heakel, 2009). Consequently the prices of currencies were determined by market forces that is, demand for and supply of money (Mastry and Salam, 2007). Due to the constant changes in demand and supply which are in turn influenced by other external factors, fluctuations arise (Czinkota et al, 2009). As a result of these fluctuations firms are exposed to foreign exchange risks also known as currency risks. Firms trading in different currencies are exposed to three types of foreign exchange risks; economic, transaction and translational risk (Czinkota et al, 2009). Firms which are involved in international trade are exposed to economic and transaction risks as they both pose potential threats to the firms cash flow over time (Czinkota et al, 2009). Studies have shown that foreign exchange fluctuations can affect the value of a fi rms cash flow over time (Aretz, Bartram and Dufey, 2007, Judge, 2004, Bradley and Moles 2002, Allayannis and Ofek 1998, Chowdhry, 1995, Damant, 2002 and Wong 2001). More so, domestic firms although not dealing with foreign currency are also affected by foreign exchange fluctuations as the price of the commodity they trade in are also affected (Abor, 2005). Most of the extant literatures have focused on corporate risk management for financial firms and as such financial hedging with derivatives has been the central theme of currency risk management. On the other hand there has been evidence to show alternative methods exist for firms involved in international trade, these methods of managing foreign exchange risks involve strategic and operational risk management. However most of these studies have been carried out in isolation; financial hedging techniques carried out in isolation of strategic and operational hedging methods and vice versa. Little has been done to provide an integrated perspective, on utilising both techniques of managing foreign exchange risks with regards to international trade firms. This is the area in which the present study intends to explore thereby contributing to the overall literature Purpose of the Research Due to the nature of international trade which expose the firm to foreign exchange movements, thus subjecting the firm to currency risks, the purpose of this research is to explore how international trade firms deal with foreign exchange risk. The research focuses how import and export firms in the East Midlands manage their foreign exchange risk. This study also aims to explore the problems involved in managing those risks. Research Questions Consequently the research hopes to answer the following questions: Do import and export firms in the East Midlands actually manage their foreign exchange rate risks? How import and export companies in the East Midlands manage their foreign exchange risks? What problems they encounter with managing these risks? Definition of Key Terms Hedge A hedge can be defined as â€Å"making an investment to reduce the risk of adverse price movements in an asset. Investors use this strategy when they are unsure of what the market will do† (Investopedia, 2010). Derivatives Derivatives are instruments whose performance is derived from an underlying asset (Arnold, 2002) Spot Rate The spot rate is defined as the rate of exchange quoted immediately if buying or selling currency (Watson and Head) International Trade This involves the flow of goods and services between nations; it involves import and/ export of goods and services (Harrison et al, 2000) The subsequent section provides a break down of how rest of the research is set out. Chapter 2: Literature Review; this chapter provides an overview of the research topic by mapping out the key areas; theories within the risk management and finance literature are identified, explored and analysed. The concept of risk and risk management is explored. A broad classification is made on the types of risks and this is then narrowed down to include foreign exchange risk. The chapter proceeds by exploring the concept of foreign exchange and foreign exchange risks; which include the types of foreign exchange exposures. The common techniques for managing foreign exchange risks are explored. This is followed by a review of relevant literature in the key areas of the research topic. Chapter 3: Research Methodology; in this chapter the research design and strategy are discussed. Chapter 4: Research Findings and Analysis; this chapter presents the findings of the research which were obtained from the questionnaire. The findings are presented using tables, graphs and charts, to enable the reader gain a clearer understanding. An analysis of the findings is carried out by cross-tabulating the responses of the respondent in order to observe for any commonalities and/or differences. Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendation; this chapter concludes the research and recommendations are made. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Risk Management- Risk is an intrinsic part of any business, due to unpredictability of the forces which govern business transactions such as political, economic and social conditions; risk is a factor which cannot be completely eliminated (Watson and Head, 2007). Arnold (2002) describes risk as a situation where there is more than just one possible outcome, but a range of potential returns. It can also be defined as the chance that the actual return from an investment will be different than expected (Lamb, 2008). From the above definitions, risk does not necessarily spell doom or does not necessarily have a negative connotation. Markowitz was one of the earliest academics to point this out, by establishing a link between risks and return (risk-return trade-off). Essentially the theory; Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) involves expected return and the degree of accompanying risk for an investment (Yorke and Droussiotis, 1994). A central theme of this theory is that the greater risk an investor accepts th e higher the potential for increased returns (Yorke and Droussiotis, 1994). While MPT purports a positive correlation between risk and return, the fact that an investment can have a range of possible outcomes is an uncertainty which can be very costly. As a result risk management is also a part and parcel of business. Risk management can be defined as â€Å"the performance of activities designed to minimize the negative impact (cost) of uncertainty (risk) regarding possible losses† (Abor, p.307, 2005). The objectives of risk management are to minimize potential losses, reduce volatility of cash flow thereby protecting earnings (Abor, 2005). While the objective for risk management is to protect companies against financial loss thereby protecting the value of the firm, traditional finance theory such as that proposed by Modigliani and Miller suggests that the market value of a firm is determined by it earning power (Arnold, 2002). The basic assumption of Modigliani and Miller theorem is that in an efficient market; with the absence of taxation, bankrupt cy costs and information asymmetry, the value of the firm is unaffected by its capital structure (Arnold, 2002). However empirical research (list authors) has shown the existence of capital market imperfections, such as taxes, agency problems and financial distress exists thus justifying risk management (Chowdhry, 1995). Furthermore, MPT also suggests that the risk and volatility of an investment portfolio can be reduced, and the gains can be enhanced, all by diversifying the portfolio among several non-correlated assets (Pearce Financial, 2008). That is, investors can maximise their expected return for a given level of risk by diversifying their investments across a range of assets ((McClure, 2006). MPT involves risk management through diversification of investments. In a simplified expression, MPT is based on the idea of not ‘putting all of ones eggs into one basket. 2.2 Types of Risk There are two broad classification of risks; Unsystematic and Systematic (Rossi and Laham, 208) Systematic risks refers to risks which affect the entire market due to events such as; exchange rate movements, changes in the price of commodities, war, recession and interest rates, however Unsystematic risks are risks which are specific to individual companies (reference). These distinctions were made by Sharpe (1960) in addition to Markowitz Modern Portfolio theory (MPT), the rationale behind it was that despite risk management practise through diversification, there were still underlying factors which affected the return potential of an investment portfolio. Chesnay Jondeau (2001) clearly point out that the correlation of assets which Markowitz talks about depends on other underlying factors and that the relationships are dynamic. They further found that major events such as general adverse movements in markets can significantly change the correlations between assets (Chesnay Jondeau, 2001). Empirical studies show that in financial crisis, assets tends to act the same, that is they are more likely to more become positively correlated, moving down at the same time (Ardelean, Brandt and Malik, 2009). Essentially, severe market crises will have a spill over effect and cause investments in several different asset classes or markets to succumb to sudden liquidation (Vocke and Wilde, 2000, Pearce Financial, 2008). However findings from Xing and Howe (2003) are contradictory, their findings show that the failure of previous studies to find a positive risk-return relationship may be as a result of model misspecification. Essentially they found that there was no agreement on the risk-return relationship amongst previous studies which had used data from one market (Xing and Howe, 2003). Thus they argued that the world market should be taken into consideration in assessing risk return-relationship in a partially integrated market (Xing and Howe, 2003). But then it only stands to reason that if markets are integrated partially or wholly, a catastrophic economic cycle such as financial crises would have an adverse effect on the world market. Thus clearly it does not matter how much one diversifies unsystematic risk, the underlying systematic risk is a problematic factor which has to be dealt with. 2.3 Foreign Exchange rate as a Systematic Risk Background Foreign Exchange rate can be defined as the â€Å"price of one currency expressed in terms of another† (Arnold, p.973, 2002). For example, if the exchange rate exchange rate between the European Euro and the Pound is â‚ ¬1.3 =  £ 1.00, this means that  £1 is equivalent to â‚ ¬1.3. Foreign Exchange (Forex) is traded on the foreign exchange market, the purpose of which is to facilitate trade and the exchange of currencies between countries (Czinkota et al, 2009). The Forex market is an informal market which does not have a central trading place (Czinkota et al, 2009). Trade is carried out it is a 24 hour market as it involves financial institutions from around the globe, as trade moves from one financial centre to another (Arnold, 2002). Thus as one market closes in one region or continent another opens in a different place (Arnold, 2002). The major trading centres are in Tokyo, Singapore, London and New York (Waston and Head, 2007). The buyers and sellers of foreign c urrencies included exporters/importers; tourists; fund managers; governments; central banks; speculators and commercial banks (Arnold, 2002). However large commercial banks account for a larger percentage of Forex trading in the currency markets, as they deal currencies on behalf of customers (Arnold, 2002). They also undertake transactions of their own in an attempt to make a profit by speculating on future movements of exchange rates (Arnold, 2002). Foreign Exchange Risk After the demise of the Bretton woods conference (1973) exchange rates were allowed to float freely; exchange rates were no longer fixed and currencies were allowed to float freely in value to each other (Czinkota et al, 2009). However freely floating exchange rate poses problems for investors and firms alike who deal with different currencies as the uncertainty of exchange rate movements can have a positive or negative impact on an investment (Czinkota et al, 2009). Foreign exchange risk also known as currency risk is the â€Å"risk that an entity will be required to pay more (or less) than expected as a result of fluctuations in the exchange rate between its currency and the foreign currency in which payment must be made† (Abor, p.3, 2005). Thus considering the potential variability of Forex and the impact it can have on international investments and international business, irrespective of the business sector, it is clear that Foreign exchange risks can be classed as systematic risks. Forex risk is an un-diversifiable risk as it affects the entire market. Having established the relationship between Forex and systematic risk and understanding that it cannot be diversified the question which presents itself is, what can be done about it? Theory states that the only way out is to hedge this risk (Bartram, 2007), the decision to hedge will be examined in Section 2.7 2.4 Types of Foreign Exchange Exposure There are three types of foreign exchange risks or exposures; Economic exposure, Transaction exposure and Translational exposure (Maurer and Valiani, 2002). Transaction exposure is the risk that arises as a result of an existing contractual agreement involving a commitment in foreign currency, this sort of risk is primarily associated with import or exports (Arnold, 2002). For example a firm which exports goods from the UK to the US; will have an agreement (contract) that the US firm buying the goods will pay for the goods at a later date (could be 30, 60 or 90 days), however changes in the exchange rates to either currency (whether an appreciation or depreciation) will either positive or negative consequences for either firms. Transaction risks also come as a result of firms making foreign investments such as opening subsidiary branches (Arnold, 2002). These risks arise in the form of payment costs associated with constructing or establishing new branches (Arnold, 2002). In order to make the necessary payments, the home-based firm would exchange its home currency for foreign currency, thereby giving rise to potential transaction risk (A rnold, 2002) Translational exposure relates to a firms earnings; it involves a firms accounting practises (Waston and Head, 2007). This risk â€Å"arises from the legal requirement that all firms consolidate their financial statement (balance sheet and income statement) of all worldwide operations annually† (Czinkota et al, p. 334, 2009). This implies that, as firms translate and consolidate foreign assets, liabilities and profits into domestic currency, there is the possibility of the firm experiencing a loss or gain (Waston and Head, 2007). This is mainly an accounting risk and as such give a real indication of the impact of exchange rate fluctuations on the value of a firm (Watson and Head, 2007). Economic exposure impacts a firms long-term cash flow, positively or negatively (Czinkota et al, 2009). This kind of risk not only affects firms involved in international trade but also has an impact on domestic firms as it can also affect the price of commodities sold (Czinkota et al, 2009). Furthermore, this sort of risk also undermines the competitiveness of a firm (Arnold, 2002). It can affect the firms competitive position directly if the home currency appreciates and foreign competitors are able to offer a much cheaper price, compared to the firms products which have become expensive as a result of the currency appreciation (Arnold, 2002). Economic risk can also affect a firms competitive position indirectly even if a firms home currency does not experience adverse movements (Arnold, 2002). For example Arnold (2002) illustrate that a South African firm selling in Hong Kong with a New Zealand firm as its main competitor can lose competitive edge if the New Zealand dollar weakens against the Hong dollar. Thus the products or commodity on offer by the New Zealand firm would be cheaper than that of the South African firm assuming both currencies (South African Rand and New Zealand Dollar) had a similar exchange rate against Hong Kong Dollar. Economic and transaction risk are more related to businesses involved in international trade, translational exposure more to do with accounting practises (Waston and Head, 2007). Consequently these are the foreign exchange exposure that will be focused on. 2.5 Foreign Exchange Risk and Natural Hedging The idea of applying natural hedging strategies as tools to hedge foreign exchange exposure is one that has received a lot of attention in recent times, as the concept focuses on using non-financial methods to mitigate the volatility of future cash flows and possibly add value to the firm (Kim et al, 2006). The various natural hedging strategies are explained below. Netting This technique relates to multi-nationals which have foreign subsidiaries, it involves reducing funds transferred by netting off the transaction between the parent company and the subsidiary firm (Watson and Head, 2007). For example â€Å"if a UK parent owed a subsidiary in Canada and sold C$2.2m of goods to the subsidiary on credit while the Canadian subsidiary is owed C$1.5m by the UK company, instead of transferring a total of C$3.7m the intra-group transfer is the net amount of C$700,00† (Arnold, p. 982, 2002). This implies that rather than both the parent and subsidiary firm managing their exposure separately they opt for a centralised management system to reduce the size of the currency flows. Consequently transaction costs and the cost of purchasing foreign exchange are mitigated (Arnold, 2002). Leading and Lagging This technique involves either settling foreign accounts by either postponing payments (lagging) till the end of the credit period allowed or prepayment (leading) at the beginning of the transaction (Watson and Head, 2007). It functions based on the anticipation a firm has that future exchange rates will either appreciate or depreciate (Czinkota, 2009). Thus if a firm anticipated a depreciation in its home currency, it lead its payments conversely if the firm anticipated an appreciation in exchange rate it would lag its payments. Invoicing in the Domestic Currency This method involves invoicing foreign customers in the firms domestic currency rather than in the foreign currency (Arnold, 2002). What this does is that it shifts the burden of risk to the foreign firm (buyer). Operational and Strategic Methods There is no one singular acceptable definition of operational hedging as it varies according to the context it is been used. Boyabatli and Toktay (2004) in their work, review and discuss a diverse cross section of views on operational hedging, they delve into the similarities in application methods of operational hedging across different academic fields. They discovered that although there were some differences in meaning in various academic fields; operations management, finance, strategy and international business, there were basic characteristics which were similar across all fields. On this basis operational hedging can be described according to its functionality. Bradley and Moles describe it as the decisions firms take in regards to the â€Å"location of their production facilities, sourcing of inputs, the nature and scope of products, strategic financial decisions such as the currency denomination of debt, the firms choice of markets and market segments† (Bradley and Mo les p.29, 2002). It involves the use of non-financial methods to mitigate the volatility of future cash flows and possibly add value to the firm (Kim et al, 2006). The objective is geared towards reducing long-term economic exposures. Operational hedging can be said to be based on the principle of real options. Real options are â€Å"opportunities to delay and adjust investments and operating decisions over time in response to resolution of uncertainty† (Triantis 2000 cited in Boyabatli and Toktay p.6, 2004). 2.6 Hedging with Financial Derivatives The different types of financial derivatives are: Forwards and Futures, Foreign currency Options and Currency Swaps. Forward contract: This enables the business to protect itself from adverse movements in exchange rates by locking in an agreed exchange rate until the agreed date of payment (Brealey, Myers and Allen, 2006). The example given by Horcher and Karen (p.95, 2005) illustrate the concept further; â€Å"a company requires 100 million Japanese yen in three months to pay for imported products. The current spot exchange rate is 115.00 yen per U.S. dollar, and the forward rate is 114.50. The company books a forward contract to buy yen (sell U.S. dollars) in three months time at a price of 114.50 and orders its merchandise. In three months time, the company will use the contract to buy yen at 114.50. At that time, if yen is trading at 117.00 per U.S. dollar, the company will have locked in a price that, with the benefit of hindsight, is worse than current market prices. If three months later yen is at 112.00 per U.S. dollar, the company will have successfully protected itself against a more exp ensive yen. Regardless of price changes, the company has locked in its yen purchase price at the forward rate of 114.50, enabling it to budget its costs with certainty†. Futures Contract: A futures contract refers to an â€Å"agreement to buy or sell a standard quantity of specified financial instrument or foreign currency at a future date at a price agreed between two parties† (Watson and Head, 2007). Although it bears some similarities to the forward contract in that it also locks in the exchange rate, however one major difference is that a forward contract can be used in a wide range of currencies while the futures contract is applicable to a limited number of currencies (Brealey, Myers and Allen, 2006). Foreign currency Options: This gives holders the right to purchase or sell foreign currency under an agreement that allows for the right but not the obligation to undertake the transaction at the agreed future date (Brealey, Myers and Allen, 2006). One key advantage of this method of hedging is that it gives holders the opportunity to take advantage of favourable exchange rate movements (Watson and Head, 2007). However a non-refundable fee on the option known as an option premium is required (Watson and Head, 2007). Currency Swaps: A currency swap is â€Å"an agreement between two parties to exchange principal and interest payments in different currencies over a stated time period† (Watson and Hedge, p. 382, 2007). Basically what this implies is that a firm can gain the use of foreign currency but avoid exchange rate risk which may arise from servicing payments (Watson and Head, 2007). 2.7 A review of Literature on hedging This section critically examines the rationale for hedging foreign exchange risk. The rationale which has been put forward for hedging risk in the existing literature (Judge, 2004) is that it maximises shareholder value. The idea behind hedging any kind of risk in general is that once a firm takes on the responsibility of actively managing risk, shareholder value is increased, thereby increasing the overall value of the firm (Judge, 2004). However finance theory proposes that shareholders are diversified and thus are not willing to pay a premium to firms for adopting hedging policies (Rossi and Laham, 2008). So in that vein, theory proposes that what is actually being maximized is the managers private utility (Tekavcic, Sernic and Spricic, 2008). Essentially finance theory states that shareholders are diversified while managers of firms are not, so in a bid to protect their income and personal asset, which are linked to the firm, they hedge against uncertainty (Baranoff and Brockett, 2008). Within this theory shareholders are willing to take on risk in exchange for greater returns (risk-return trade off) and so they invest in companies which they believe can provide such high returns. Thus managers hedging risks can be said to lead to underinvestment, which then flaws the theory of risk-return trade off (Baranoff and Brockett, 2008). This theory is based on the premise that financial markets are efficient and as such hedging activities of firm would not add value to the firm (Rossi and Laham). In addition to the complexities of the above theory, when the concept of hedging is put into the context of foreign exchange movements; the Law of one price (LOP)/ purchasing power parity (PPP) suggests that identical goods are not affected by exchange rate variations (Hyrina and Serletis, 2008). The law of one price is the foundation of the theory of PPP which posits that similar goods should have identical prices across countries once expressed in a common currency (Hyrina and Serletis, 2008, Czinkota et al, 2009). Numerous studies have been carried out to test whether or not the theory holds, however there is no general consensus as to whether or not the theory is valid. Hyrina and Serletis (2009), Glen (1992), Choi, Laibson and Madrian (2006) found that there are some flaws within the theory as the real exchange rate is not stationary. Engel and Rogers (1996) examines the impact distance has on goods sold and whether the presence of national borders separating locations were these goods are sold, also have any impact on the law of one price. Empirical evidence from the research shows distance and border have significant role to play on the differences in price of goods (Engel and Rogers, 1996). More so, that market segmentation also leads to price differentiation (Engel and Rogers, 1996). This theory just like the first are both based on the principle that the market is efficient and as such inconsistencies such as movements in exchange rate even out in time (Zanna, 2009). Without attempting to disparage the above theories, in regards to the first theory, whether or not hedging is done to propagate the interests of managers, the fact is that, the basis of the theory (Efficient Market) is flawed as there are numerous empirical evidence (Nobile, 2007; Bartram, 2007, Allayannis and Ofek, 2003, Tekavcic et al 2008, Mastry, 2003) to suggest that there are imperfections in the financial market such as high interests rates, inflation, tax and of course foreign exchange movements which can affect a firm. Thus shareholders cannot afford not to be concerned about hedging as these imperfections in the market can affect the cash flow, profit and ultimately the overall value of the firm. Thus in the same vain PPP should not hold. In regards to PPP it is necessary to indicate that there are other factors which affect the price of goods sold across national borders. Bradley (2005) states that the prices of goods for each firm are influenced by numerous factors such as; Government policies, high inflation rates and corporate income tax and thus such prices of goods cannot be the same across different borders. So to state clearly the financial market is not efficient due to market imperfections. Thus movements in foreign exchange can affect the cash flow and overall value of the firm. Consequently it is necessary for firms to focus on how to manage this risk. 2.8 Review of literature on financial derivatives and operational Strategies The extant literatures on hedging exchange rate risks with financial derivatives have focused on corporate risk management. The main thrust of literatures from authors such as Mastry (2003), Bartram et al (2003) and Galum and Roth (1993) have carried out studies which are aimed at finding the optimal financial derivative. However there is no general consensus as to an optimal financial hedging position. The reason for this can related to basic financial theory which suggests that derivative instruments should be chosen based on the degree of exposure of the firm and the payoff that can be gotten from the instrument (Bartram, 2006). Essentially what this implies instruments with linear characteristics such as forwards, futures and swaps should be used for linear exposures, while instruments with nonlinear profiles such as currency options are suitable to hedging nonlinear exposure (Stulz, 2003). Put simply the theory suggests that after firms assess the nature of its exposure, all tha t needs to be done is choose a derivative which matches that exposure. However, contrary to financial theory Bartram (2006), Ianieri (2009) found that as a result of the flexible nature of options, options can be used to hedge various types of exposures and not just nonlinear exposures. Despite these findings, merely identifying the nature of exposure and matching it with a derivative is not enough. There are other factors which influence the decision on what derivatives to use besides the nature of exposure. For instance while an option is flexible and can be adapted to suit various types of exposures, it is also be a highly complex technical method to use. The problem with currency options is that they require highly skilled individuals who can understand and use it effectively. Ianieri (2009) states that even brokers who should know how to use this method have had bad experiences with it. In an alternative view, Masry and Salam (2007) in an attempt to understand the rationale for using financial derivatives found that the size of the firm impacts on a firms decision to use financial derivatives. A study conducted by Judge (2004) shows that there is a positive relationship between the size of the firm and the foreign currency hedging decision. The general idea is that large firms have numerous resources available to them; in terms of personnel and information, and as such they are more likely to hedge using financial derivatives (Judge, 2004). So in essence the transaction costs which accompany the use of derivatives would discourage small firms from opting to hedge with financial derivatives. On the other hand Kim and Sung (2005), Managing Foreign Exchange Risk in International Trade Managing Foreign Exchange Risk in International Trade MANAGING FOREIGN EXCHANGE RISK IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE WITH A FOCUS ON EAST MIDLANDS COMPANIES Abstract The purpose of this research is to investigate how international trade companies in the East Midlands manage foreign exchange risk. This study utilises descriptive statistics in presenting and analysing data from the primary research. The findings of the research indicate that a majority of the firms used broad business strategies in managing their foreign exchange risk. The main problems the firms had with managing foreign exchange risks centred on customer retention and receiving payments on time. The results also indicate that there were a few firms which took an integrated approach to mitigating foreign exchange risk. This research is of value to firms involved in international trade and also business development agencies which seek to assist firms which are planning to enter or are already operating in foreign markets. Chapter 1 Introduction International trade involves exporting and importing of goods or services across foreign borders and, as soon as a firm engages in import and/or export it is exposed to numerous risks. As a result firms operating outside their home country, have to deal with the economic conditions of the foreign country in which it wishes to operate in. One of the key issues firms involved in import and/ or export are faced with is dealing with foreign currency as this is the only means by which the exchange of goods or services is facilitated. To this end it is import to study and understand the impact which foreign currency has on international trade. Following the demise of the Bretton Woods agreement (1971) whereby exchange rates were allowed to float freely, managing foreign exchange has become important (Heakel, 2009). Consequently the prices of currencies were determined by market forces that is, demand for and supply of money (Mastry and Salam, 2007). Due to the constant changes in demand and supply which are in turn influenced by other external factors, fluctuations arise (Czinkota et al, 2009). As a result of these fluctuations firms are exposed to foreign exchange risks also known as currency risks. Firms trading in different currencies are exposed to three types of foreign exchange risks; economic, transaction and translational risk (Czinkota et al, 2009). Firms which are involved in international trade are exposed to economic and transaction risks as they both pose potential threats to the firms cash flow over time (Czinkota et al, 2009). Studies have shown that foreign exchange fluctuations can affect the value of a fi rms cash flow over time (Aretz, Bartram and Dufey, 2007, Judge, 2004, Bradley and Moles 2002, Allayannis and Ofek 1998, Chowdhry, 1995, Damant, 2002 and Wong 2001). More so, domestic firms although not dealing with foreign currency are also affected by foreign exchange fluctuations as the price of the commodity they trade in are also affected (Abor, 2005). Most of the extant literatures have focused on corporate risk management for financial firms and as such financial hedging with derivatives has been the central theme of currency risk management. On the other hand there has been evidence to show alternative methods exist for firms involved in international trade, these methods of managing foreign exchange risks involve strategic and operational risk management. However most of these studies have been carried out in isolation; financial hedging techniques carried out in isolation of strategic and operational hedging methods and vice versa. Little has been done to provide an integrated perspective, on utilising both techniques of managing foreign exchange risks with regards to international trade firms. This is the area in which the present study intends to explore thereby contributing to the overall literature Purpose of the Research Due to the nature of international trade which expose the firm to foreign exchange movements, thus subjecting the firm to currency risks, the purpose of this research is to explore how international trade firms deal with foreign exchange risk. The research focuses how import and export firms in the East Midlands manage their foreign exchange risk. This study also aims to explore the problems involved in managing those risks. Research Questions Consequently the research hopes to answer the following questions: Do import and export firms in the East Midlands actually manage their foreign exchange rate risks? How import and export companies in the East Midlands manage their foreign exchange risks? What problems they encounter with managing these risks? Definition of Key Terms Hedge A hedge can be defined as â€Å"making an investment to reduce the risk of adverse price movements in an asset. Investors use this strategy when they are unsure of what the market will do† (Investopedia, 2010). Derivatives Derivatives are instruments whose performance is derived from an underlying asset (Arnold, 2002) Spot Rate The spot rate is defined as the rate of exchange quoted immediately if buying or selling currency (Watson and Head) International Trade This involves the flow of goods and services between nations; it involves import and/ export of goods and services (Harrison et al, 2000) The subsequent section provides a break down of how rest of the research is set out. Chapter 2: Literature Review; this chapter provides an overview of the research topic by mapping out the key areas; theories within the risk management and finance literature are identified, explored and analysed. The concept of risk and risk management is explored. A broad classification is made on the types of risks and this is then narrowed down to include foreign exchange risk. The chapter proceeds by exploring the concept of foreign exchange and foreign exchange risks; which include the types of foreign exchange exposures. The common techniques for managing foreign exchange risks are explored. This is followed by a review of relevant literature in the key areas of the research topic. Chapter 3: Research Methodology; in this chapter the research design and strategy are discussed. Chapter 4: Research Findings and Analysis; this chapter presents the findings of the research which were obtained from the questionnaire. The findings are presented using tables, graphs and charts, to enable the reader gain a clearer understanding. An analysis of the findings is carried out by cross-tabulating the responses of the respondent in order to observe for any commonalities and/or differences. Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendation; this chapter concludes the research and recommendations are made. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Risk Management- Risk is an intrinsic part of any business, due to unpredictability of the forces which govern business transactions such as political, economic and social conditions; risk is a factor which cannot be completely eliminated (Watson and Head, 2007). Arnold (2002) describes risk as a situation where there is more than just one possible outcome, but a range of potential returns. It can also be defined as the chance that the actual return from an investment will be different than expected (Lamb, 2008). From the above definitions, risk does not necessarily spell doom or does not necessarily have a negative connotation. Markowitz was one of the earliest academics to point this out, by establishing a link between risks and return (risk-return trade-off). Essentially the theory; Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) involves expected return and the degree of accompanying risk for an investment (Yorke and Droussiotis, 1994). A central theme of this theory is that the greater risk an investor accepts th e higher the potential for increased returns (Yorke and Droussiotis, 1994). While MPT purports a positive correlation between risk and return, the fact that an investment can have a range of possible outcomes is an uncertainty which can be very costly. As a result risk management is also a part and parcel of business. Risk management can be defined as â€Å"the performance of activities designed to minimize the negative impact (cost) of uncertainty (risk) regarding possible losses† (Abor, p.307, 2005). The objectives of risk management are to minimize potential losses, reduce volatility of cash flow thereby protecting earnings (Abor, 2005). While the objective for risk management is to protect companies against financial loss thereby protecting the value of the firm, traditional finance theory such as that proposed by Modigliani and Miller suggests that the market value of a firm is determined by it earning power (Arnold, 2002). The basic assumption of Modigliani and Miller theorem is that in an efficient market; with the absence of taxation, bankrupt cy costs and information asymmetry, the value of the firm is unaffected by its capital structure (Arnold, 2002). However empirical research (list authors) has shown the existence of capital market imperfections, such as taxes, agency problems and financial distress exists thus justifying risk management (Chowdhry, 1995). Furthermore, MPT also suggests that the risk and volatility of an investment portfolio can be reduced, and the gains can be enhanced, all by diversifying the portfolio among several non-correlated assets (Pearce Financial, 2008). That is, investors can maximise their expected return for a given level of risk by diversifying their investments across a range of assets ((McClure, 2006). MPT involves risk management through diversification of investments. In a simplified expression, MPT is based on the idea of not ‘putting all of ones eggs into one basket. 2.2 Types of Risk There are two broad classification of risks; Unsystematic and Systematic (Rossi and Laham, 208) Systematic risks refers to risks which affect the entire market due to events such as; exchange rate movements, changes in the price of commodities, war, recession and interest rates, however Unsystematic risks are risks which are specific to individual companies (reference). These distinctions were made by Sharpe (1960) in addition to Markowitz Modern Portfolio theory (MPT), the rationale behind it was that despite risk management practise through diversification, there were still underlying factors which affected the return potential of an investment portfolio. Chesnay Jondeau (2001) clearly point out that the correlation of assets which Markowitz talks about depends on other underlying factors and that the relationships are dynamic. They further found that major events such as general adverse movements in markets can significantly change the correlations between assets (Chesnay Jondeau, 2001). Empirical studies show that in financial crisis, assets tends to act the same, that is they are more likely to more become positively correlated, moving down at the same time (Ardelean, Brandt and Malik, 2009). Essentially, severe market crises will have a spill over effect and cause investments in several different asset classes or markets to succumb to sudden liquidation (Vocke and Wilde, 2000, Pearce Financial, 2008). However findings from Xing and Howe (2003) are contradictory, their findings show that the failure of previous studies to find a positive risk-return relationship may be as a result of model misspecification. Essentially they found that there was no agreement on the risk-return relationship amongst previous studies which had used data from one market (Xing and Howe, 2003). Thus they argued that the world market should be taken into consideration in assessing risk return-relationship in a partially integrated market (Xing and Howe, 2003). But then it only stands to reason that if markets are integrated partially or wholly, a catastrophic economic cycle such as financial crises would have an adverse effect on the world market. Thus clearly it does not matter how much one diversifies unsystematic risk, the underlying systematic risk is a problematic factor which has to be dealt with. 2.3 Foreign Exchange rate as a Systematic Risk Background Foreign Exchange rate can be defined as the â€Å"price of one currency expressed in terms of another† (Arnold, p.973, 2002). For example, if the exchange rate exchange rate between the European Euro and the Pound is â‚ ¬1.3 =  £ 1.00, this means that  £1 is equivalent to â‚ ¬1.3. Foreign Exchange (Forex) is traded on the foreign exchange market, the purpose of which is to facilitate trade and the exchange of currencies between countries (Czinkota et al, 2009). The Forex market is an informal market which does not have a central trading place (Czinkota et al, 2009). Trade is carried out it is a 24 hour market as it involves financial institutions from around the globe, as trade moves from one financial centre to another (Arnold, 2002). Thus as one market closes in one region or continent another opens in a different place (Arnold, 2002). The major trading centres are in Tokyo, Singapore, London and New York (Waston and Head, 2007). The buyers and sellers of foreign c urrencies included exporters/importers; tourists; fund managers; governments; central banks; speculators and commercial banks (Arnold, 2002). However large commercial banks account for a larger percentage of Forex trading in the currency markets, as they deal currencies on behalf of customers (Arnold, 2002). They also undertake transactions of their own in an attempt to make a profit by speculating on future movements of exchange rates (Arnold, 2002). Foreign Exchange Risk After the demise of the Bretton woods conference (1973) exchange rates were allowed to float freely; exchange rates were no longer fixed and currencies were allowed to float freely in value to each other (Czinkota et al, 2009). However freely floating exchange rate poses problems for investors and firms alike who deal with different currencies as the uncertainty of exchange rate movements can have a positive or negative impact on an investment (Czinkota et al, 2009). Foreign exchange risk also known as currency risk is the â€Å"risk that an entity will be required to pay more (or less) than expected as a result of fluctuations in the exchange rate between its currency and the foreign currency in which payment must be made† (Abor, p.3, 2005). Thus considering the potential variability of Forex and the impact it can have on international investments and international business, irrespective of the business sector, it is clear that Foreign exchange risks can be classed as systematic risks. Forex risk is an un-diversifiable risk as it affects the entire market. Having established the relationship between Forex and systematic risk and understanding that it cannot be diversified the question which presents itself is, what can be done about it? Theory states that the only way out is to hedge this risk (Bartram, 2007), the decision to hedge will be examined in Section 2.7 2.4 Types of Foreign Exchange Exposure There are three types of foreign exchange risks or exposures; Economic exposure, Transaction exposure and Translational exposure (Maurer and Valiani, 2002). Transaction exposure is the risk that arises as a result of an existing contractual agreement involving a commitment in foreign currency, this sort of risk is primarily associated with import or exports (Arnold, 2002). For example a firm which exports goods from the UK to the US; will have an agreement (contract) that the US firm buying the goods will pay for the goods at a later date (could be 30, 60 or 90 days), however changes in the exchange rates to either currency (whether an appreciation or depreciation) will either positive or negative consequences for either firms. Transaction risks also come as a result of firms making foreign investments such as opening subsidiary branches (Arnold, 2002). These risks arise in the form of payment costs associated with constructing or establishing new branches (Arnold, 2002). In order to make the necessary payments, the home-based firm would exchange its home currency for foreign currency, thereby giving rise to potential transaction risk (A rnold, 2002) Translational exposure relates to a firms earnings; it involves a firms accounting practises (Waston and Head, 2007). This risk â€Å"arises from the legal requirement that all firms consolidate their financial statement (balance sheet and income statement) of all worldwide operations annually† (Czinkota et al, p. 334, 2009). This implies that, as firms translate and consolidate foreign assets, liabilities and profits into domestic currency, there is the possibility of the firm experiencing a loss or gain (Waston and Head, 2007). This is mainly an accounting risk and as such give a real indication of the impact of exchange rate fluctuations on the value of a firm (Watson and Head, 2007). Economic exposure impacts a firms long-term cash flow, positively or negatively (Czinkota et al, 2009). This kind of risk not only affects firms involved in international trade but also has an impact on domestic firms as it can also affect the price of commodities sold (Czinkota et al, 2009). Furthermore, this sort of risk also undermines the competitiveness of a firm (Arnold, 2002). It can affect the firms competitive position directly if the home currency appreciates and foreign competitors are able to offer a much cheaper price, compared to the firms products which have become expensive as a result of the currency appreciation (Arnold, 2002). Economic risk can also affect a firms competitive position indirectly even if a firms home currency does not experience adverse movements (Arnold, 2002). For example Arnold (2002) illustrate that a South African firm selling in Hong Kong with a New Zealand firm as its main competitor can lose competitive edge if the New Zealand dollar weakens against the Hong dollar. Thus the products or commodity on offer by the New Zealand firm would be cheaper than that of the South African firm assuming both currencies (South African Rand and New Zealand Dollar) had a similar exchange rate against Hong Kong Dollar. Economic and transaction risk are more related to businesses involved in international trade, translational exposure more to do with accounting practises (Waston and Head, 2007). Consequently these are the foreign exchange exposure that will be focused on. 2.5 Foreign Exchange Risk and Natural Hedging The idea of applying natural hedging strategies as tools to hedge foreign exchange exposure is one that has received a lot of attention in recent times, as the concept focuses on using non-financial methods to mitigate the volatility of future cash flows and possibly add value to the firm (Kim et al, 2006). The various natural hedging strategies are explained below. Netting This technique relates to multi-nationals which have foreign subsidiaries, it involves reducing funds transferred by netting off the transaction between the parent company and the subsidiary firm (Watson and Head, 2007). For example â€Å"if a UK parent owed a subsidiary in Canada and sold C$2.2m of goods to the subsidiary on credit while the Canadian subsidiary is owed C$1.5m by the UK company, instead of transferring a total of C$3.7m the intra-group transfer is the net amount of C$700,00† (Arnold, p. 982, 2002). This implies that rather than both the parent and subsidiary firm managing their exposure separately they opt for a centralised management system to reduce the size of the currency flows. Consequently transaction costs and the cost of purchasing foreign exchange are mitigated (Arnold, 2002). Leading and Lagging This technique involves either settling foreign accounts by either postponing payments (lagging) till the end of the credit period allowed or prepayment (leading) at the beginning of the transaction (Watson and Head, 2007). It functions based on the anticipation a firm has that future exchange rates will either appreciate or depreciate (Czinkota, 2009). Thus if a firm anticipated a depreciation in its home currency, it lead its payments conversely if the firm anticipated an appreciation in exchange rate it would lag its payments. Invoicing in the Domestic Currency This method involves invoicing foreign customers in the firms domestic currency rather than in the foreign currency (Arnold, 2002). What this does is that it shifts the burden of risk to the foreign firm (buyer). Operational and Strategic Methods There is no one singular acceptable definition of operational hedging as it varies according to the context it is been used. Boyabatli and Toktay (2004) in their work, review and discuss a diverse cross section of views on operational hedging, they delve into the similarities in application methods of operational hedging across different academic fields. They discovered that although there were some differences in meaning in various academic fields; operations management, finance, strategy and international business, there were basic characteristics which were similar across all fields. On this basis operational hedging can be described according to its functionality. Bradley and Moles describe it as the decisions firms take in regards to the â€Å"location of their production facilities, sourcing of inputs, the nature and scope of products, strategic financial decisions such as the currency denomination of debt, the firms choice of markets and market segments† (Bradley and Mo les p.29, 2002). It involves the use of non-financial methods to mitigate the volatility of future cash flows and possibly add value to the firm (Kim et al, 2006). The objective is geared towards reducing long-term economic exposures. Operational hedging can be said to be based on the principle of real options. Real options are â€Å"opportunities to delay and adjust investments and operating decisions over time in response to resolution of uncertainty† (Triantis 2000 cited in Boyabatli and Toktay p.6, 2004). 2.6 Hedging with Financial Derivatives The different types of financial derivatives are: Forwards and Futures, Foreign currency Options and Currency Swaps. Forward contract: This enables the business to protect itself from adverse movements in exchange rates by locking in an agreed exchange rate until the agreed date of payment (Brealey, Myers and Allen, 2006). The example given by Horcher and Karen (p.95, 2005) illustrate the concept further; â€Å"a company requires 100 million Japanese yen in three months to pay for imported products. The current spot exchange rate is 115.00 yen per U.S. dollar, and the forward rate is 114.50. The company books a forward contract to buy yen (sell U.S. dollars) in three months time at a price of 114.50 and orders its merchandise. In three months time, the company will use the contract to buy yen at 114.50. At that time, if yen is trading at 117.00 per U.S. dollar, the company will have locked in a price that, with the benefit of hindsight, is worse than current market prices. If three months later yen is at 112.00 per U.S. dollar, the company will have successfully protected itself against a more exp ensive yen. Regardless of price changes, the company has locked in its yen purchase price at the forward rate of 114.50, enabling it to budget its costs with certainty†. Futures Contract: A futures contract refers to an â€Å"agreement to buy or sell a standard quantity of specified financial instrument or foreign currency at a future date at a price agreed between two parties† (Watson and Head, 2007). Although it bears some similarities to the forward contract in that it also locks in the exchange rate, however one major difference is that a forward contract can be used in a wide range of currencies while the futures contract is applicable to a limited number of currencies (Brealey, Myers and Allen, 2006). Foreign currency Options: This gives holders the right to purchase or sell foreign currency under an agreement that allows for the right but not the obligation to undertake the transaction at the agreed future date (Brealey, Myers and Allen, 2006). One key advantage of this method of hedging is that it gives holders the opportunity to take advantage of favourable exchange rate movements (Watson and Head, 2007). However a non-refundable fee on the option known as an option premium is required (Watson and Head, 2007). Currency Swaps: A currency swap is â€Å"an agreement between two parties to exchange principal and interest payments in different currencies over a stated time period† (Watson and Hedge, p. 382, 2007). Basically what this implies is that a firm can gain the use of foreign currency but avoid exchange rate risk which may arise from servicing payments (Watson and Head, 2007). 2.7 A review of Literature on hedging This section critically examines the rationale for hedging foreign exchange risk. The rationale which has been put forward for hedging risk in the existing literature (Judge, 2004) is that it maximises shareholder value. The idea behind hedging any kind of risk in general is that once a firm takes on the responsibility of actively managing risk, shareholder value is increased, thereby increasing the overall value of the firm (Judge, 2004). However finance theory proposes that shareholders are diversified and thus are not willing to pay a premium to firms for adopting hedging policies (Rossi and Laham, 2008). So in that vein, theory proposes that what is actually being maximized is the managers private utility (Tekavcic, Sernic and Spricic, 2008). Essentially finance theory states that shareholders are diversified while managers of firms are not, so in a bid to protect their income and personal asset, which are linked to the firm, they hedge against uncertainty (Baranoff and Brockett, 2008). Within this theory shareholders are willing to take on risk in exchange for greater returns (risk-return trade off) and so they invest in companies which they believe can provide such high returns. Thus managers hedging risks can be said to lead to underinvestment, which then flaws the theory of risk-return trade off (Baranoff and Brockett, 2008). This theory is based on the premise that financial markets are efficient and as such hedging activities of firm would not add value to the firm (Rossi and Laham). In addition to the complexities of the above theory, when the concept of hedging is put into the context of foreign exchange movements; the Law of one price (LOP)/ purchasing power parity (PPP) suggests that identical goods are not affected by exchange rate variations (Hyrina and Serletis, 2008). The law of one price is the foundation of the theory of PPP which posits that similar goods should have identical prices across countries once expressed in a common currency (Hyrina and Serletis, 2008, Czinkota et al, 2009). Numerous studies have been carried out to test whether or not the theory holds, however there is no general consensus as to whether or not the theory is valid. Hyrina and Serletis (2009), Glen (1992), Choi, Laibson and Madrian (2006) found that there are some flaws within the theory as the real exchange rate is not stationary. Engel and Rogers (1996) examines the impact distance has on goods sold and whether the presence of national borders separating locations were these goods are sold, also have any impact on the law of one price. Empirical evidence from the research shows distance and border have significant role to play on the differences in price of goods (Engel and Rogers, 1996). More so, that market segmentation also leads to price differentiation (Engel and Rogers, 1996). This theory just like the first are both based on the principle that the market is efficient and as such inconsistencies such as movements in exchange rate even out in time (Zanna, 2009). Without attempting to disparage the above theories, in regards to the first theory, whether or not hedging is done to propagate the interests of managers, the fact is that, the basis of the theory (Efficient Market) is flawed as there are numerous empirical evidence (Nobile, 2007; Bartram, 2007, Allayannis and Ofek, 2003, Tekavcic et al 2008, Mastry, 2003) to suggest that there are imperfections in the financial market such as high interests rates, inflation, tax and of course foreign exchange movements which can affect a firm. Thus shareholders cannot afford not to be concerned about hedging as these imperfections in the market can affect the cash flow, profit and ultimately the overall value of the firm. Thus in the same vain PPP should not hold. In regards to PPP it is necessary to indicate that there are other factors which affect the price of goods sold across national borders. Bradley (2005) states that the prices of goods for each firm are influenced by numerous factors such as; Government policies, high inflation rates and corporate income tax and thus such prices of goods cannot be the same across different borders. So to state clearly the financial market is not efficient due to market imperfections. Thus movements in foreign exchange can affect the cash flow and overall value of the firm. Consequently it is necessary for firms to focus on how to manage this risk. 2.8 Review of literature on financial derivatives and operational Strategies The extant literatures on hedging exchange rate risks with financial derivatives have focused on corporate risk management. The main thrust of literatures from authors such as Mastry (2003), Bartram et al (2003) and Galum and Roth (1993) have carried out studies which are aimed at finding the optimal financial derivative. However there is no general consensus as to an optimal financial hedging position. The reason for this can related to basic financial theory which suggests that derivative instruments should be chosen based on the degree of exposure of the firm and the payoff that can be gotten from the instrument (Bartram, 2006). Essentially what this implies instruments with linear characteristics such as forwards, futures and swaps should be used for linear exposures, while instruments with nonlinear profiles such as currency options are suitable to hedging nonlinear exposure (Stulz, 2003). Put simply the theory suggests that after firms assess the nature of its exposure, all tha t needs to be done is choose a derivative which matches that exposure. However, contrary to financial theory Bartram (2006), Ianieri (2009) found that as a result of the flexible nature of options, options can be used to hedge various types of exposures and not just nonlinear exposures. Despite these findings, merely identifying the nature of exposure and matching it with a derivative is not enough. There are other factors which influence the decision on what derivatives to use besides the nature of exposure. For instance while an option is flexible and can be adapted to suit various types of exposures, it is also be a highly complex technical method to use. The problem with currency options is that they require highly skilled individuals who can understand and use it effectively. Ianieri (2009) states that even brokers who should know how to use this method have had bad experiences with it. In an alternative view, Masry and Salam (2007) in an attempt to understand the rationale for using financial derivatives found that the size of the firm impacts on a firms decision to use financial derivatives. A study conducted by Judge (2004) shows that there is a positive relationship between the size of the firm and the foreign currency hedging decision. The general idea is that large firms have numerous resources available to them; in terms of personnel and information, and as such they are more likely to hedge using financial derivatives (Judge, 2004). So in essence the transaction costs which accompany the use of derivatives would discourage small firms from opting to hedge with financial derivatives. On the other hand Kim and Sung (2005),